本书基于中法三院（中国工程院、法国国家技术院、法国科学院）对核能与环境领域的联合研究成果，整理和分析了大量数据，着重研究了从铀矿开采到放射性废物处理的整个过程中核能对环境的影响，包括正常和事故工况，以及核废物的环境影响，并对这些影响进行了全面分析。中法三院就核能与环境领域相关问题提出了见解和建议，将有效促进核能的健康发展和进一步提升中法两国对世界核能技术发展的贡献。
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目录
综述与建议1
0.1核电厂和燃料循环设施正常运行期间的环境影响1
0.1.1核能对全球环境的影响1
0.1.2核能对当地环境的影响2
0.2核电厂及核燃料循环设施在事故情况下的影响3
0.3放射性废物管理的影响4
0.4利用核与辐射安全、安保措施来降低环境影响5
第1章引言6
1.1能源需求趋势6
1.2脱碳承诺，以及不同发电能源C02排放情况8
1.3环境保护要求核能可持续发展8
1.4本报告内容和结构10
第2章核电厂和核燃料循环设施正常运行期间的环境影响11
2.1如何衡量核能的环境影响12
2.1.1核能对环境的主要影响12
2.1.2环境释放13
2.1.3评价13
2.1.4方法14
2.2核能的流出物、辐射影响及解决方案14
2.2.1核电厂的流出物及辐射影响14
2.2.2核燃料循环的流出物及辐射影响17
2.2.3辐射监测和监控19
2.2.4电离辐射的生物效应20
2.2.5放射性物质的运输20
2.2.6利益相关方参与21
2.3核能发电与其他能源发电的环境影响比较22
2.3.1土地占用23
2.3.2建造材料24
2.3.3取水和用水25
2.3.4常规退役废物28
2.3.5关键材料28
2.4新技賴望28
2.4.1减少燃烧燃料的碳排放29
2.4.2嬗变技术30
2.4.3其他先进技术32
2.5结论32
附录2-1关于中国的具体情况34
附录2-2核厂址周围大型流行病学调查（案例与结果）36
第3章乏燃料和放射性废物管理38
3.1放射性废物管理的原则、策略和框架39
3.1.1放射性废物管理原则39
3.1.2放射性废物管理策略40
3.1.3放射性废物管理框架42
3.2放射性废物的特性和分类44
3.2.1乏燃料和/或后处理放射性废物44
3.2.2放射性废物的特性45
3.2.3放射性废物的分类47
3.3放射性废物处理和流出物排放48
3.3.1放射性废物最小化48
3.3.2流出物排放49
3.4放射性废物处置50
3.4.1极低放废物（VLLW)50
3.4.2短寿命低中放废物（LIL-SLW)51
3.4.3长寿命低放废物（LL-LLW)52
3.4.4长寿命中放废物（IL-LLW)和高放废物（HLW)52
3.4.5铀燃料循环（铀矿开采）前端产生的仅含有天然放射性核素的放射性废物55
3.5开式/闭式核燃料循环产生的废物56
3.6新技术57
3.7结论58
附录3放射性废物处置设施59
A3.1法国59
A3.2中国60
第4章严重核事故62
4.1核电厂严重事故63
4.1.1三里岛核电厂事故63
4.1.2切尔诺贝利核电厂事故64
4.1.3福岛第一核电厂事故66
4.2为降低事故环境影响采取的改进措施68
4.2.1反应堆技术提升68
4.2.2核电厂在福岛第一核电厂事故后的行动69
4.2.3严重事故管理70
4.2.4对于未来类似严重事故的见解72
4.3结论73
附录4-1第三代压水堆严重事故专用预防和缓解措施74
附录4-2中国内陆核电厂的安全性75
附录4-3中国严重事故后应急组织管理76
A4-3.1中国的三级核应急体系77
A4-3.2核应急监测体系77
第5章核安全与环境79
5.1核电厂的安全性及其环境影响80
5.1.1严重事故及其后果81
5.1.2风险指引的纵深防御体系82
5.1.3新的安全威胁因素84
5.2核电厂选址85
5.3安全责任及政府职责86
5.3.1运营单位的主要责任86
5.3.2政府和监管机构的职责和作用87
5.4核安全与公众接受度87
5.5结论88
附录5-1核安全监管体系89
附录5-2中国采取的行动90
第6章结论92
参考文献96
词汇表101
后记106
Contents
Synthesis and recommendations 108
0.1 Impacts from NPPs and nuclear fuel cycle facilities under normal operation 109
0.1.1 Nuclear energy and global impacts on the environment 109
0.1.2 Nuclear energy and local impacts on the environment 109
0.2 Impacts from NPPs and nuclear fuel cycle facilities in accidental situations Ill
0.3 Impacts from radwaste management 112
0.4 Nuclear and radiation safety/security as a tool to prevent impacts on the environment 113
Chapter 1 Introduction 115
1.1 Trends in energy demand 115
1.2 Decarbonization commitment and CO2 emissions by various energy options 117
1.3 Environmental protection as a requirement to make nuclear energy sustainable 119
1.4 Report contents and organization 120
Chapter 2 Environmental impacts during normal operations of nuclear power plants and nuclear fuel cycle facilities 122
2.1 How to measure impacts of nuclear energy on the environment 123
2.1.1 Main impacts of nuclear energy to the environment 123
2.1.2 Releases to the environment 124
2.1.3 Assessments 125
2.1.4 Methodology 126
2.2 Effluents，radiological impacts of nuclear energy and solutions 126
2.2.1 Effluents and radiological impacts of NPPs 126
2.2.2 Effluents and radiological impacts of nuclear fuel cycle 129
2.2.3 Radiation monitoring and surveillance 131
2.2.4 Biological effect of ionizing radiation 132
2.2.5 Transportation of radioactive materials 133
2.2.6 Participation of stakeholders 134
2.3 Environmental impacts of nuclear energy compared to other sources of electricity .135
2.3.1 Land occupation 137
2.3.2 Materials used for construction 138
2.3.3 Water withdrawal and consumption 139
2.3.4 Conventional waste from decommissioning 143
2.3.5 Critical materials 144
2.4 New technology perspectives 144
2.4.1 Reducing Carbon emissions of burnt fuels 144
2.4.2 Transmutation technologies 145
2.4.3 Other advanced technologies 148
2.5 Conclusions 149
Appendix 2-1 More specific considerations about the Chinese situation 151
Appendix 2-2 Large scale epidemiological studies around nuclear sites (cases and results) 153
Chapter 3 Spent fuel and radwaste management 157
3.1 Principles, strategies and framework of radwaste management to prevent environmental impacts 159
3.1.1 Principles of radwaste management 159
3.1.2 Strategies of radwaste management 159
3.1.3 Frameworks of radwaste management with respect to the environment 163
3.2 Specific characteristics and classification of radwaste 166
3.2.1 Spent fuel or reprocessing rad waste 166
3.2.2 Specific characteristics of radwaste versus the environment 168
3.2.3 Classification of radwaste versus the environment 170
3.3 Processing and discharge of radwaste 172
3.3.1 Minimization of radwaste 172
3.3.2 Discharge of effluents 174
3.4 Disposal of radwaste 174
3.4.1 Very low-level waste (VLLW) 174
3.4.2 Low and intermediate level-short lived waste (LIL-SLW) 175
3.4.3 Low level-long lived waste (LL-LLW) 177
3.4.4 Intermediate level-long lived waste (IL-LLW) and high level waste (HLW) 178
3.4.5 Radioactive waste containing only natural radionuclides from the front-end of uranium fuel cycle (uranium mining) 181
3.5 Open/closed nuclear fuel cycle 184
3.6 New technologies 185
3.7 Conclusions 186
Appendix 3 188
A3.1 French side 188
A3.2 Chinese side 189
Chapter 4 Severe nuclear accidents 191
4.1 Severe accidents 192
4.1.1 Three Mile Island accident 193
4.1.2 Chernobyl accident 195
4.1.3 Fukushima Daiichi accident 197
4.2 Improvements to make nuclear energy free of environmental impacts in case of accident 200
4.2.1 Improvements in reactor technologies 200
4.2.2 NPP action after Fukushima Daiichi accident 202
4.2.3 Severe accident management 203
4.2.4 Insights on similar severe accidents in future 206
4.3 Conclusions 207
Appendix 4-1 Dedicated prevention and mitigation measures for severe accidents of Gen-JH NPPs 208
Appendix 4-2 Safety of inland NPP in China 210
Appendix 4-3 Emergency management after severe accidents in China 212
A4-3.1 Three level nuclear emergency system in China 213
M-3.2 Nuclear emergency monitoring system 214
Chapter 5 Nuclear safety and the environment 216
5.1 The safety of nuclear power plants and their environmental impact 218
5.1.1 Severe accidents and their external consequences 218
5.1.2 Risk-informed defence in depth 221
5.1.3 New safety threats 223
5.2 NPPs sitings 224
5.3 Responsibility for safety and role of the government 226
5.3.1 The prime responsibility of the operator 226
5.3.2 The role of the government and the regulator 228
5.4 Nuclear safety, and public understanding 229
5.5 Conclusions 230
Appendix 5-1 Nuclear safety regulation system 231
Appendix 5-2 Actions taken in China 232
Chapter 6 Conclusions 235
References 240
Glossary 245
Postscript 250
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